Competing Myths of Mary Magdalene

I’ve recently completed a short online mini-course from Boston College’s School of Theology & Ministry on Mary Magdalene. The idea was to “Explore the imagery of St. Mary of Magdala, her role as Apostle to the Apostles and the impact of her life on the ministry of women in the Church”, according to the course description. Offered at a nominal fee, I thought it looked like a nice opportunity to focus on a small but important part of the gospel story over the last few weeks of summer, and maybe help get my head out of the incessant political morass that always seems to intrude upon my field of thought. If only.

I quickly discovered that there is established, prevailing feminist dogma concerning the saint and the history of her story’s interpretation. The course utilized several related resources from BC’s seminar archives, but I also obtained about a half dozen other book-length resources from my public library network, and googled several other presentations. The sameness of the framework story encountered in each of these writers/presenters was uncanny to the point of being somewhat creepy. Here was I, embarking on what I thought was going to be a gospel character study, and what I encountered was a studied recitation of “narrative” talking points that reminded me of nothing so much as the world of political “news” I was naively trying to find a mental haven from.

The gist of the Accepted Narrative (TM) is that Mary was an Uber-apostle whom Jesus loved more than any of the men, and to whom special knowledge had been personally conveyed (this latter idea in particular is taken from the fairly recently discovered fragments of the “Gospel of Mary Magdalene”, a gnostic religious text dating likely from the 2nd century). However, men being “the patriarchy”, her memory was diminished until Pope Gregory the Great committed the great crime of “conflation” in a homily he gave in Rome in 592, which allegedly launched a more or less systemic debasement of her memory which eventually saw her viewed popularly as a prostitute and floozy, until modern times when dramatic works like Jesus Christ Superstar and The DaVinci Code had turned her into Jesus’ lover and/or wife. The “conflation” of which Gregory is held guilty is his identification of Mary with both Mary the sister of Martha and Lazarus in Bethany, and (being the greater part of the crime) with the “sinful woman” in Luke 7:36ff who washed the feet of Jesus with her tears in the house of Simon the Pharisee.

It’s easy to be sympathetic to the feminists’ project of rehabilitating Mary Magdalene’s reputation. There’s no question that her persona has been appropriated as a vehicle to express the tawdry fantasies of many an artist since the Renaissance – and undoubtedly many preachers as well. It’s also realistic to assume that, had it not been associated with the literary characters the gospels depict as having anointed Jesus’ feet (or head), her name would not have been used to personify the sexual deviance inferred by the many interpreters in the character of Luke’s “woman of the city, who was a sinner”. However, the prescribed feminist critique of the religious history gets it wrong in almost every conceivable way, and then hypocritically proceeds to appropriate the persona of Mary Magdalene as a symbol of the modern project of self-importance, self-glorification, and tribalistic grievance husbandry. These criticisms warrant explication, but that will have to wait for another day.

The course itself presented its own challenges to my serenity. It involved a totally asynchronous, discussion-based forum, in which four pre-defined questions served as the basis for discussion in each of the course’s three weeks (plus a couple introductory questions). The questions themselves related to several videos or transcripts of presentations shared over the years at annual seminars on Mary Magdalene held at BC, which served as the course materials.

There were thirty students enrolled, plus a course facilitator: five men, and twenty-five + one women. Six of the women appear not to have participated, so the question responses and subsequent discussions were provided by nineteen women enrollees, five men, plus the female facilitator – who contributed close to 30% of the over eight hundred entries. As is typical, the conversation was dominated by a few voices. In this case, three women accounted for 42% (=250) of the enrollee entries. Combined with the facilitator, the four contributed almost 60% of the total entries. At twenty-two entries, I was the most frequently engaged from among the men, but in both confronting the questions and wading through the responses, I felt like a stranger in a strange land. The introductory question was: “Who is St. Mary of Magdala to you?”, a harbinger of the subjective, largely self-referential discussion topics to come.

The first thread spun off of that question soon elicited the reply: “Your prompt response is so affirming!” This would be followed soon by another, gushing: “Thank you so much for affirming my experience.” This is not the discourse of grown-ups. Children need their experiences and their attempts at socializing affirmed. Adulthood basically means reaching the point where you no longer depend on others for confirming your life decisions. But these examples were not anomalous. I can’t quite put my finger on a description of the conversational mode, but overall it gave me the same infantilizing feel. Coupled with the self-referential process and the dogmatically uptight constraints upon the content and direction of the course, I have to say it was thoroughly disappointing, even if it has given me some good grist for the study mill.

The Calm Before the Storm?

GoodNight2020-01The President Donald Trump era appears to be circling the drain. What an utterly unglued five years this has been in American political and popular society. Trump’s enemies, at least in the press, seem to think that his apparent impending departure from public office will mark his removal from the public scene, or at least from public influence. I do not think they could be more wrong (as usual). Setting aside the increasingly far-fetched possibility that Trump may yet pull out a victory via legal challenges to Democrat Party election shenanigans, the fact of his being out of elected office will, I think, do rather little to limit his ability to drive the public narrative.

It does mean he is no longer responsible for U.S. foreign policy, with all the ensuing significant dangers to world peace and stability implied in a Joe Biden regime. But domestically, with all the vast popular support he retains, the transition back to civilian life would seem to point to Trump  soon being able to take the gloves off, being no more restrained by the requirements of his office to at least attempt to appear “presidential”. Not only is he not going to lose his megaphone, I deeply suspect he will be in the market to buy one of his own.

That being said, he does seem to be expending more and more of his political capital the longer he drags out his refusal to concede. It’s almost beginning to look like this was all nothing more than a final giant trolling of Trump’s political enemies, who overnight flipped their script and decided that calling election results into question by peddling conspiracy theories is thoroughly untoward behavior, even a “threat to democracy”. Good to know, good to know.

Perhaps the strangest part of the unraveling of the Trump presidential era has been the recent descent of the new-technology media companies, in particular, into an outright dystopia-worthy suppression of facts, opinions, or commentary that challenge the prevailing narrative of the ensconced clerisy. That’s not to say that their ambitions have evolved at all, it’s just that they’re not even trying to hide their manipulative propagandizing anymore.

In a way, it’s good that it’s so out in the open now. People who have been in active denial that the mainstream media is politically biased to the point of corruption don’t really have a leg to stand on anymore. People who have been susceptible enough to the leftist political narrative to be truly oblivious to the leftward slant of all the media they consume are now facing patronizing right-think instruction memos concerning the elections, Covid-19, and Lord knows what else, every time they open up Facepalm™. They have little possibility of clinging to any illusions concerning who determines what “correct” opinion is now. At some point, they’re going to grow tired of being hectored like that, and might be willing to start looking for less annoying options. That would be a great thing.

Overall, I think the Trump presidency has been good for the country – and for the world. In November of 2016, I certainly did not think I would be saying that four years later, but I was wrong about Trump. He’s still neither a gentleman nor a scholar, of course, but his policy instincts turned out to be surprisingly good, and his ability to remain productive while taking relentless flack was astonishing.

More importantly, he managed to expose an awful lot of rot in America’s institutions. Prompting the mainstream media to debase themselves until they resembled nothing so much as a sniveling pack of dishonest hyenas was perhaps his greatest accomplishment.

But the truth is that he somehow brought out the worst in just about everybody. This might not typically be considered a commendable characteristic, but I believe he has done the nation a great service by exposing the rot that has been undermining it for decades. No one can deny anymore that the country has serious and maybe even fatal deformities in almost all our public institutions. As they say, the first step in addressing a problem is to admit you have one. Who can make the case for the health of any of this country’s major institutions at this point?

The upshot of that? What if we’ve been living through the calm before the storm!

Goodbye to Wordsearch!

WS2Logos

I guess I always knew it was inevitable that the Wordsearch Bible study application would fold. And realistically, it couldn’t have happened in a better way: Faithlife/Logos put them out of their misery on Friday, buying the platform (i.e. technology, licenses, and customers) from Lifeway, and immediately started moving Wordsearch users over to Logos by transferring their book licenses to Logos editions, and giving them a customized version of the Logos desktop application to run, based on how current their Wordsearch license was. For me, that meant several hundred titles I had in Wordsearch but hadn’t replicated in Logos are now available to me in superior Logos editions, which both greatly simplifies my use of them, and increases their study value.

I had mixed feeling initially, given my almost 30-year history as a Wordsearch user, and my appreciation for a few of its better features, but then it dawned on me that I almost never run it anymore, except to access resources that are now going to be made available within Logos. The functionality of the Wordsearch toolset is almost all implemented better in Logos, with the only real weak spot being Logos’ over-reliance on the new Notes system as the only internal repository for user-created data except for the ability to create “personal books”. In short, the completion of the new-to-Logos resources allowing the last of them to migrate from Wordsearch to Logos cannot happen fast enough for me at this point. If I can really have all those books in Logos without having to buy them again, I’m ready to run the uninstaller, and close out that chapter.

However, it also calls for a re-evaluation of this website, since no small part of the effort over the past dozen years has been to provide comparative and analytical content for Bible Study software, and Wordsearch received most of my attention. I’ve been very critical of it – especially back when it was my primary Bible study tool – which I’d say was prior to the releases of Logos 4 and Wordsearch 10. I’ve never done an analysis of Logos on this site, primarily because it is so complex that I’ve never felt like I had a good enough handle on it to produce a profession caliber analysis. And if I’m not going to write about Logos, I don’t see any point anymore in writing about Bible Study software at all. For desktop software, Logos and Accordance are the only serious options left, and Accordance can neither match the breadth of Logos, nor beat Logos on price, which is where the other smaller options had an advantage. Game, Set, Match – Logos.

Musical Reflections: Jethro Tull’s A (1980)

One of the old albums I’ve had an opportunity to revisit in my recent push to finish digitizing my old music collection is the 1980 album from Jethro Tull that goes by the simple name A. The album came out in September, about half a year after I’d gotten married. It featured Eddie Jobson on keyboards and electric violin, and I Tull_A2recall being anxious to get my hands on it, as I’d quickly become an Eddie Jobson fan after my exposure to him on the two albums his band UK released (1978 & 1979). However, I was also dirt poor at that point in my life, and would not have been in a good position to purchase it. In fact, my copy is clearly a cut-out – which, for those too young to know the lingo, was a term that referred to overstock records sold at a significant discount, identifiable as such by cuts that were literally made in the album jackets. So, I suspect I made the purchase between one and two years later, when Chrysalis Records would likely to have been ready to unload their unsold inventory.

Whenever that purchase was made, I recall being disappointed in the record when I heard it. In particular, I was disappointed in Jobson’s performance, or more precisely: in how he was used on the recording. I probably didn’t listen to it more than a couple times, and then shelved it, where it sat un-listened-to among my several-hundred strong record collection for years, until being moved with the rest of the LPs (and cassettes) into the basement laundry room a couple decades ago, as digital media overtook the old hardcopy technologies. I digitized the majority of my non-Classical record collection in the early 2000’s. The A album did not make that initial cut. It was left behind among the musical flotsam and jetsam that survived the digitized sinking of the venerable old record collection.

Determined to digitize it before disposing of the old media, I recorded the LP to disk recently. Listening to it as I recorded, I couldn’t figure what I was thinking back in the early 1980s, or why I would have found this album disappointing. There is some goofiness on side two of the album (Low Ratio!), but this is overall a sparkling effort, and Jobson’s playing is terrific (admittedly, there’s not  as much violin as I would’ve liked to hear from him). On the other hand, this work was originally advanced as an Ian Anderson solo album, not a Tull album, and the only former Tull member to play on it was Martin Barre (guitar), so it did sound quite a bit different than earlier Tull work, and many Tull fans frowned upon it at the time.

Still, I was hardly one to be put off by sound innovation  – I had little problem listening to the Yes album released that year featuring the Buggles on lead vocals and keyboards! Today, I’d consider A one of the three or four best rock albums I have from 1980. In terms of the Tull catalog, I’d place it alongside the War Child album from 1974, both in terms of how much I like it (that’s a compliment), and in terms of its innovativeness within the development of the band’s sound,

There was a period after I got married that I did not have an amplifier for my turntable, and was reduced to using the turntable built into an all-in-one compact Sears & Roebuck stereo system that Joyce brought with her, and I have to guess it was through that machine that I listened to but did not truly hear this marvelous music. I’m not sure how else I could have missed it. What a delight to find this gem buried in my basement. I’ve been rediscovering quite a bit of enjoyable music from three or four or five decades ago, which I’d either thought I’d outgrown, or that I hadn’t really paid close enough attention to at the time.

Musical Reflections: Re-Discovering Pat Benatar

I had just managed to leave high school behind me when Pat Benatar’s first album was released in 1979. I can’t say I remember it, although I was listening to the radio in those days, and almost certainly heard the singles from it. Her second album, Crimes of Passion, was a different story. Benatar-CrimesOfPassionReleased in the summer of 1980, it was loaded with radio-friendly songs, and I purchased a copy of the LP. It was mostly straight-ahead rock, played cleanly (i.e. more like pop than punk), though with more skill than creativity, and more attitude than musicality. One thing in particular, however, made it stand out among the rest of the rock radio fare: Benatar had terrific pipes. Although my favorite track at the time was the little-noticed and perhaps overly-muscular cover of Kate Bush’s “Wuthering Heights”, roughly half the songs on the album became staples on FM rock radio. The album was popular enough to earn Benatar a Grammy award. Several albums in a similar vein followed, with Benatar earning a string of Grammy awards for rocking pop ballads and anthems.

My interest in her music had dissipated pretty quickly, however. As a rule, I was no fan of music that appealed to the “Grammy Awards” crowd – a truism that has become ever more true over time. In reality, what she’d been selling was less a musical quest than a stage show: a tough girl persona embedded in a “sex kitten in spandex” package of lipstick, mascara, and mini-skirts. While I was certainly no paragon of male virtue, that shtick was nonetheless not a long-term attraction for me, and the songwriting just wasn’t that good, so I tuned her out in my search for personally meaningful music in the wasteland of the early/mid 80’s commercial Rock scene. What I didn’t realize during those years was that, behind the hit singles and MTV videos, there was a genuine musical personality developing out of the collaboration between Benatar and her guitarist-turned-husband Neil Giraldo.

I recall reading an interview comment from Benatar many years ago expressing her discomfort over the awareness that the scores of young men pressed up near the stage when she was performing were focusing their attention on her crotch. I had little sympathy for her at the time, since that kind of erotic appeal seemed to be precisely her intended vehicle in her drive for success. Nonetheless, it’s apparent now, looking back at her body of work over the period, that she really did regret at least the side-effects of her early marketing approach, and that she really did want to present herself in a different stage persona.

Musically, she and Giraldo were also carving out a new musical direction, one that was more personal, and less cliched and bombastic. In hindsight, this is evident at least as early as their 1984 album Tropico, published while Benatar was pregnant with their first child, and it was fully evident by the time of their 1988 album Wide Awake In Dreamland. But I managed to completely miss it, and was oblivious to it for years, until I was recently clearing up the remnants of my 20-year-ago music digitization project.

I had digitized Crimes of Passion to MP3 back then, but had subsequently deleted it as lacking enough musical interest for me to keep. However, in a recent review comparing my digital music library with my legacy media archive, I decided to revisit the album for the sake of culling any worthwhile tracks. My thought was to also obtain MP3s of the better tracks from the various other Pat Benatar albums, and combine them all to create a homemade “Best Of” collection. I started checking out Benatar songs online, mostly from compilation albums, and mostly from the more familiar early period. Then I watched a couple of TV talk show interviews from the 1990s on YouTube, which included live renditions of some very different sounding newer music. After digging a little deeper, I realized that the Benatar-Giraldo music produced during the 1990s stood head & shoulders above the 1980s work in musical quality. Their popularity had collapsed, but their work had matured fabulously.

In 1991, they followed up Wide Awake In Dreamland with an album of mostly jump blues covers called True Love. How well that album works is debatable, but benatargravityit clearly informed and powered their next album, which was a return to performing original rock songs, but with a distinctly funkier and bluesier sound than they had played in the 1980s. That 1993 album, Gravity’s Rainbow, brings together everything the duo had been trying to do with their more creative songs from the late 1980s, into a fresh-sounding, energetic album that does not have a weak song on it (discounting the 30-second opening ditty). Perhaps not surprisingly, it was their first album composed entirely by the band. They followed that up with an even more mature sounding album in 1997 called Innamorata, which, if perhaps not quite as consistent as the previous album, nonetheless contains plenty of engaging music, including a song with one of the cooler grooves I’ve heard (“River of Love”), which I rank as my favorite from the pair. Although one won’t find instrumental virtuosity on these albums, they are both excellently performed and produced collections of songs bursting with mature but vibrant personality, and the multi-layered vocals are outstanding.

After discovering the 1990s work, I went back to explore the deeper album cuts from the post-Crimes of Passion era. Although my historic judgment on the immediate follow-up album (Precious Time) stood up to scrutiny (weak writing), the four albums produced between 1982 and 1988 all contained some musically benatarinnamoratacompelling deep cuts, even if the more popular tracks were sometimes shallow. My intended home-made “Best Of” collection was growing like a weed, with the two mid-90s albums included in their entirety, along with large chunks of the later 1980s releases. Ultimately, I broke that intended collection up into five sub-collections: three stand-alone albums (Crimes of Passion; Gravity’s Rainbow; Innamorata), and two 70-80 minute collections of cuts from the other albums (1979-1985, and 1988-2003). My little “Best Of Benatar” collection quite surprisingly turned into almost five hours of music.

Benatar and Giraldo appear to have stopped publishing music after an unfortunately weaker 2003 follow-up to Innamorata called Go, the cover of which features a close-up photo of the 50-year old Benatar apparently trying to benatargorecapture the glam of her early persona, complete with over-the-top lipstick and a bizarre eye shadow application suggestive to me of the transhumanism that has fueled the sexual revolution. This is a shame, as the more recent work preceding this evinced a certain humanism that seemed to be at least somewhat informed by Benatar’s Catholic sensibilities, whereas Go  seems bitter, angry, and accusatory. There are a handful of worthy tracks on the album, but it seems misdirected overall, and it flopped commercially.

Benatar and Giraldo remain happily married, after almost 40 years. If nothing else, they’ve managed to beat some demons that seriously haunt the commercial music industry community, and there’s something to say for that. I wish them and their children well, and I’m very glad I decided to give their music one more try before tossing it for good. It’s been four months since I discovered the “better side” of Pat Benatar, and her music shows no signs of drifting off my playlists anytime soon. There’s some really good stuff in their catalog if you look behind the hits.

The Revised New Jerusalem Bible (RNJB)–Initial Thoughts

rnjbI received an early Christmas present from myself today. I had pre-ordered the hardcover edition of the full Revised New Jerusalem Bible from CBD a while back, with the expectation that it would arrive near the end of the month. That was several weeks later than other distributors were offering, but the discount CBD was offering was irresistible. To my delight, it showed up earlier than anyone was advertising delivery. In fact, Amazon is still promoting delivery on the “release date” of December 3rd. Three extra cheers for the good people at Christian Book Distributors.

I’ve had a paperback copy of the New Testament and Psalms of this translation for a year or so, and had been pleasantly surprised by the improvement in the translation over the preceding versions in the Jerusalem Bible lineage. I’ve only had a couple hours to peruse the new volume since it arrived in the mail today, but would like to offer a few preliminary thoughts.

Let me say up front, based primarily on my familiarity with the RNJB New Testament, that I am thrilled to see this new Catholic version being made available to the English-speaking Church. The editor (Henry Wansbrough) has clearly indicated that one of the guiding principles of this effort has been to produce a faithful, formal equivalence translation in the Jerusalem Bible literary tradition. I was perhaps cynically skeptical of that claim when I first heard of it it last year, but was quickly relieved of my skepticism when I got my hands on the text. Wansbrough has truly managed to transform the Jerusalem Bible into a largely formal equivalence translation, without losing the characteristic literary flavor of the Jerusalem Bible tradition. This was no mean feat, and my admiration for the man, and whatever his supporting team, is cannot be overstated. That being said, there are a few things worth pointing out concerning the new edition.

The page layouts appear identical between the Image/Random House hard cover “Study Edition” of the full RNJB and the Darton, Longman & Todd paperback edition of the NT & Psalms, although the hard cover edition has significantly larger pages (6” x 9.125”  vs 5.375” x7.75”), allowing for both increased font size and expanded white space around the edges.  This helps readability, but the paper is not as white as the paperback, which detracts from readability, at least for these old eyes.

Although the edition advertises itself as a “Study Edition”, there is little about it that warrants such a claim. It contains 8 color maps in the back, and about 30 pages of textual indices & study materials, but the annotations and cross references within the test – which had been by far the strongest elements of the previous versions in the Jerusalem Bible tradition – have been gutted for this version, and can be at best compared to the content of the Readers’ Editions of the previous versions in this tradition.

The Foreword for the full RNJB has been expanded from that provided in the NT & Psalms edition, and reiterates or introduces some strange assertions. It claims that the JB was the “first full translation of the Bible into modern English” (i.e., in 1966), but goes on to claim that “soon after”, the Revised Standard Version (and others) “began to appear”. However, the “Apocrypha” of the RSV had been published in 1965, so it’s hard to see how this timeline can be supported. Worse, the foreword goes on to suggest that: “A major impetus was given to biblical studies and to the use of the Bible by the decree of the Second Vatican Council on the Bible, Lumen Gentium”.  The referenced document, also known in English as The Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, is not in fact the conciliar document that addresses the use of the Bible in the Church; that is actually The Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation, or Dei Verbum. It’s easy enough to justify such a mixup in the drafting of the foreword, but it is hard to understand how such a statement made of through the editorial process.

as much as I’d like to see a translation of this caliber published with a set of annotations comparable to the original 1966 JB – or even the 1985 NJB – I will nonetheless be grateful for the significant contribution this version represents to the English-speaking Catholic world.

Bob Centamore: 1942 – 2019

The world has lost a good man as my old friend and mentor, Bob Centamore, was called home to the Lord on May 31st. He was 76. I’ve rarely seen Bob since he and his wife Margaret retired to North Carolina. Although he and I were linked on FacePalm™, we hadn’t had much interaction since he moved south. Yet I am deeply saddened by his passing, even while having every confidence in the sure hope of Bob’s eternal life with God in Christ. I am of course hardly unaware of the frailty and fleeting nature of our earthly existence, but it’s still hard to accept.

My father counted Bob among his good friends, long before I had that honor. He was loved by three generations of Gillises. It would be difficult for me to exaggerate Bob’s influence on me as a Christian man. From the time I was a teenager, Bob modeled for me “the real deal” of what it means to be a Christian man. He would reach out to me with genuine interest and concern about the matters that mattered most, those matters that most people avoid in conversation for the sake of not upsetting the apple cart, but which Bob rightly understood to be at the crux of a person’s own existential status. Bob’s intense and genuine interest in the condition of the deep reaches of my soul, and his unabashed piety and love for God, provided me a window into a serious, meaning-drenched reality that transcended the superficialities of the so-called civilized world I was chafing against in my adolescence. What could matter more, in the final analysis?

Some of the more endearing memories of Bob in my life are of evenings spent debating issues during – or often after – the Little Rock Bible Study sessions held at his house during the early 1990s, when I was in my early 30s, and newly returned to the bosom of the Church. I can say now that Bob was right the majority of the time when we disagreed during those sessions, and I regret never finding the opportunity to tell him that I’d come to realize that. In retrospect, what stands out to me is Bob’s unflinching charity in those encounters, and his trust both that the Holy Spirit would always keep the ship afloat, and that the truth would always prevail. His faithfulness rubbed off on me over time, because I, too, came to understand that faith, which is the fountain of hope, is predicated upon a deep and abiding trust in God. I owe that knowledge and the peace that flows from it, in part, to Bob.

Rest in the peace of Christ, my old friend. May he richly reward your faithfulness and good works.

Bob, in 2017, trying to get a head start on his flight to the heavens.

[Photos taken from Bob’s FacePalm™ page.]

Goodbye to Another Electronic Friend

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28 years ago, on a cold January Saturday, I dragged my family out to an audio dealer at the Auburn Mall to replace a pair of AKG K240 headphones that had become almost unusable after about a dozen years. Tonight, after buying an adapter that would allow me to use them with my smaller-profile devices, I dusted off those replacement headphones to put them on, and discovered that the left channel was dead. I was shocked. For the first time in 40 years, I do not own a set of working K240s. The world as I’ve known it is falling apart!! As the artifacts of my personal history continue to land in the junk pile, I can’t help but feel somewhat disoriented. Why should I care? I do have a very nice-sounding pair of wireless JBL headphones now… But why do I suspect those will last no longer than five years?

Holy Family, 2018

On this Feast of the Holy Family, may we seek the wisdom to understand the sublime brilliance of God’s plan for the family, the rectitude to carry out our own part of that plan in righteousness, and the fortitude to embrace that part in the face of popular derision and diversions.

And may we find guidance in the witness of those who have faithfully cultivated the field before us.